Pitch

The relationship between pitch and frequency. The important point is that the same pitch distance/interval (i.e. octave) corresponds to an increasingly larger frequency distance

Pitch is the perceived fundamental frequency of a sound. While the actual fundamental frequency can be precisely determined through physical measurement, it may differ from the perceived pitch because of overtones, or partials, in the sound. The human auditory perception system may also have trouble distinguishing frequency differences between notes under certain circumstances. According to ANSI acoustical terminology, it is the auditory attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high.

Pitches may be described in various ways, including high or low, as discrete or indiscrete, pitch that changes with time (chirping) and the manner in which this change with time occurs: gliding; portamento; or vibrato, and as determinate or indeterminate. Musically the frequency of specific pitches is not as important as their relationships to other frequencies — the difference between two pitches can be expressed by a ratio or measured in cents. People with a sense of these relationships are said to have relative pitch while people who have a sense of the actual frequencies independent of other pitches are said to have "absolute pitch", or "perfect pitch".

During historical periods when instrumental music rose in prominence (relative to the voice), there was a continuous tendency for pitch levels to rise. This "pitch inflation" seemed largely due to instrumentalists competing with each other, each attempting to produce a brighter, more "brilliant", sound than that of their rivals. (In string instruments, this is not all acoustic illusion: when tuned up, they actually sound objectively brighter because the higher string tension results in larger amplitudes for the harmonics.) This tendency was also prevalent with wind instrument manufacturers, who crafted their instruments to generally play at a higher pitch than those made by the same craftsmen years earlier.

It should be noted too that pitch inflation is a problem only where musical compositions are fixed by notation. The combination of numerous wind instruments and notated music has therefore restricted pitch inflation almost entirely to the Western tradition.

On at least two occasions, pitch inflation has become so severe that reform became needed. At the beginning of the 17th century, Michael Praetorius reported in his encyclopedic Syntagma musicum that pitch levels had become so high that singers were experiencing severe throat strain and lutenists and viol players were complaining of snapped strings. The standard voice ranges he cites show that the pitch level of his time, at least in the part of Germany where he lived, was at least a minor third higher than today's. Solutions to this problem were sporadic and local, but generally involved the establishment of separate standards for voice and organ ("Chorton") and for chamber ensembles ("Kammerton"). Where the two were combined, as for example in a cantata, the singers and instrumentalists might perform from music written in different keys. This system kept pitch inflation at bay for some two centuries.

In 1939, an international conference recommended that the A above middle C be tuned to 440 Hz, now known as concert pitch. This standard was taken up by the International Organization for Standardization in 1955 (and was reaffirmed by them in 1975) as ISO 16. The difference between this and the diapason normal is due to confusion over which temperature the French standard should be measured at. The initial standard was A = 439 Hz, but this was superseded by A = 440 Hz after complaints that 439 Hz was difficult to reproduce in a laboratory owing to 439 being a prime number.

Despite such confusion, A = 440 Hz is arguably the most common tuning used around the world. Many, though certainly not all, prominent orchestras in the United States and United Kingdom adhere to this standard as concert pitch. In other countries, however, higher pitches have become the norm: A = 442 Hz is common in certain continental European and American orchestras (the Boston symphony being the best-known example), while A = 445 Hz is heard in Germany, Austria, and China.

In practice, as orchestras still tune to a note given out by the oboe, rather than to an electronic tuning device (which would be more reliable), and as the oboist may not have used such a device to tune in the first place, there is still some variance in the exact pitch used. Solo instruments such as the piano (which an orchestra may tune to if they are playing together) are also not universally tuned to A = 440 Hz. Overall, it is thought that the general trend since the middle of the 20th century has been for standard pitch to rise, though it has been rising far more slowly than it has in the past.

Belting (or vocal belting)

Belting (or vocal belting) refers to a specific technique of singing by which a singer uses his or her chest voice to produce high and powerful pitches. Technically, it is known as chest voice, or middle voice.

TECHNIQUE

The term "belt" is sometimes described as the use of "chest" voice in the higher part of the voice, rather than using the "head voice," etc. However, the proper production of the "belt voice" involves minimizing tension in the throat and modulation of vowels and change of typical placement of the voice sound in the mouth, bringing it forward into the hard palet. In a higher range all vowels are modulated to one of two vowels: "eh" as in "ape" or "ah" (bright vowel) as in "ChicAgo." Depending on the range of the singer, the vowels will be more or less modulated. Hence, in a male voice, a belted A might not have the same amount of modulation as a belted B. In males, belted voices often sound similar to classical, or "legit" singing techniques, such as Bel Canto or Speech Level Singing. Classical methods are not similar in females as the higher range of a singer in formally trained singing in females is done in middle and head voices, not the chest.

In addition to the modulation of vowels, the belt voice sound is produced by properly placing the sound in the mouth. The soft palate is raised and the vowels brightened toward the front of the mouth. The jaw is open (but not fully open) so that a few teeth are typically showing on the top and bottom of the mouth. There are various techniques and vocalises to accomplish this sound. The result is a kind of "soft yell."

It is possible to learn classical vocal methods like Bel Canto and to also be able to belt, in fact many musical roles now require it. The belt sound is easier for some than others, but the sound is possible for classical singers, too. It requires muscle coordinations not readily used in a classically trained singer or students of Speech Level Singing, however, as these muscles are generally used only during high chest voice production or when making straining noises which singers trained in these styles are told not to do.

In order to increase the amount of high notes one can belt, one must practice. This can be by repeatedly attempting to hit the note in a melody line, or by using vocalise programs utilizing scales. A good example of an artist repeatedly attempting to hit a note required in a melody line can be seen in the DVD on the With The Lights Out boxset from Nirvana, in which Cobain is shown trying to hit a required music note in early unfinished versions of "Smells Like Teen Spirit" live in concert, again and again over many months before finally achieving the note. Many commercial "learn to sing" packages have a set of scales to sing along to as their main offering, which the purchaser must practice with often to see improvement.

Some well known exercises include:

♦ Singing an arpeggio or scale on 'Nyah', 'Nyee', 'Nyay', 'Nyoo' and 'Nyaw', using the NY to place the sound in the hard palet and 'brighten' the sound, the 'y' being the consonant use rather than a vowel sound.
♦ Singing an arpeggio or scale on a 'brr', like the sound of a trumpet or elephant. This also places the sound forward in the hard palet, and engages deep support. The singer should slightly purse their lips and press their tongue into their bottom teeth. The lips should be loose.

'Belters' are not exempt from developing a strong head voice, as the more resonant their higher register in head voice, the better the belted notes in this range will be. Some belters find that after a period of time focussing on the belt, the head voice will have improved and, likewise, after a period of time focussing on the head voice, the belt may be found to have improved.

Belting is often misunderstood to be dangerous. However a well trained, well supported and placed belt is safe. As a general rule, learning belters are told to cease immediately if what they are doing physically hurts, and work through it with their tutor.

In pop music belting can be heard by singers such as Regine Velasquez, Celine Dion,Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, and Charice Pempengco.



Physiology and possible dangers of belting

There are many explanations as to how the belting voice quality is produced. When approaching the matter from the Bel Canto point of view, it is said that the chest voice is applied to the higher registers. Because of research, more is known about the anatomy and the physical process of singing than before. One current vocal researcher and tutor is Jo Estill. Estill has conducted research on the belting voice. Estill describes the belt as an extremely muscular and physical way of singing. When observing the vocal tract and torso of singers, while belting, Estill observed:

Minimal airflow (70% closure)
Maximum torso anchoring (activating the large muscles in the back to control airflow)
Head anchoring (activating the neck and head muscles for stabilizing the larynx)
Tilting of the cricoid (We know that the space between the thyroid and the cricoid widens. It seems that the cricoid is tilting downwards, although there might be thyroid activity as well).
Highest position of the larynx
Maximum muscular effort of the external muscles. When produced healthily, there is no forced tension in the vocal folds themselves.
Constriction of the aryepiglottic sphincter (the "twanger")
Use of overly strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can lead consequently to vocal deterioration.[1] Moderate use of the technique and, most importantly, retraction of the false vocal cords while singing is vital to safe belting. Without proper training in retraction, belting can indeed be unhealthy.

Most Speech Level Singing tutors and some students of that method regard belting as damaging to long term vocal health. They may teach an alternative using a "mixed" or middle voice which can sound as strong, as demonstrated by Stevie Wonder, Aretha Franklin, and Barbra Streisand. The subject of belting is a matter of heated controversy among singers, singing teachers and methodologies. The method is also frowned upon in some classical legit circles, though they tend to be less vocal on the subject.

Proponents of belting say that it is a "soft yell," and if produced properly it can be healthy. It does not require straining and they say it is not damaging to the voice. Though the larynx is slightly higher than in classical technique, they say that vocal cords are not harmed.

However, it is thought by some that "belting" will produce vocal nodules. Nodules can show up when the vocal cords are unhealthily slapped together in what is referred to in legit singing circles as a "glottal attack." Belt pulls the vocal cords very close together, but some allege that air can still pass through safely without causing a "glottal attack" with training.

Some singing tutors such as Catherine Sadolin actually believe belt technique can be used as therapy for vocal cords.

Singing in falsetto or head voice?

Singing with falsetto voice and the head voice is not the same thing. It is a very common misconception amongst singers who think that a falsetto voice and a head voice are the same. Falsetto is the lightest vocal production made by the human voice. It is limited in tonal variation, strength and vocal tonal dynamics.

There is usually a "jump", "disconnect" or even a break between your chest (speaking) voice and your falsetto note. A distinguished vocal coach and voice trainer, Randy Buescher of Chicago once defines falsetto as: - "a co-ordination where the outer layer of the vocal cord (mucosa, i.e. internal skin or muscular covering) is vibrating, creating sounds, but without engaging the actual musculature of the cord.

Also, there exists no medial compression. That means that during the vibratory cycle, the cords never fully approximate during singing a falsetto note. However, the cords do approximate in a head voice, but the vibration of the cord moves away from the full depth of the vocal cord (chest voice) to a pattern that involve less and less depth of vocal cord as you ascend towards the upper end of your voice range. The highest and top most notes of your range involve only the vocal ligament.

However, do note that there is no consensus among vocal and singing experts on the official definition of vocal registers."

Vocal Training

Vocal training is an immensely important aspect of a musicians career. Singing a good song is almost a matter of getting the right intonations and sound without having to strain one’s voice. Almost every successful musician has undergone some kind of vocal training at some point of his career. In essence, training ones vocals to achieve perfection can improve one’s singing ability tremendously. Just like a person who trains for guitar playing, the more a person trains at playing guitar the better he will get at playing guitar and his overall performance will improve. The same applies to vocal training.

Musicians, especially vocalists for a band or an individual singer for that matter, usually do warm ups before taking to the stage. These warm ups are very important as it will determine whether the singer can perform well for the entire concert .It has been said that doing breathing exercises is an important part of vocal training and singing. Essentially breathing exercises should be done in such as way so that the breathing momentum is in tandem with the notes that the singer is singing. This kind of training will ensure that a singer does not run out of air while singing and it will also train a singer to take breaths between phrases.

It has been said that posture also plays an important role in a musicians or singers ability to sing. All this has to do with a persons lungs because is a person does not maintain a good posture then that persons diaphragm which acts to bring air in and out will be pressured and this will affect the way in which a vocalist sings.

Another aspect of vocal training which is not physical in nature is simple having more confidence in oneself. Every time a musician or vocalist takes the stage, they become nervous at some point. This is caused by the fact that they are either completely overwhelmed by the crowd at the concert or just inexperienced .This nervousness can cause a vocalist to make mistakes while singing or at least affect his performance on stage, This problem can be avoided simply by gaining more confidence in oneself so that while on stage ones fullest potential can be exploited.

Most vocalists normally turn to their singing instructors for vocal training. A vocalist must pick his singing instructor with great deliberation and he must find an instructor that specializes in vocal training in the genre of music which the vocalist is training to sing. There are numerous genres of music which people train to sing in. Among theses are rock, jazz, pop, metal, classical music, and various other genres. Each of these genres has different kinds of vocal styles and a vocalist that is training to do vocals for metal songs must not ask a vocal trainer which specializes in pop music vocals to train him to sing. What this means is that the the proper selection of a vocal trainer depends greatly on the genre of music which that vocal trainer specializes in.

Care must also be taken to protect one’s throat from harm. Just as a persons body needs protection, similarly a vocalist must take steps to safe guard his throat from various elements that can do harm to his throat which in turn will affect his singing capabilities. Smoking is one such vice that can cause detriment to ones vocals. Also vocal training must not be over done so as not to cause harm to ones vocal chords and larynx. Protecting ones vocal system will be a step in the positive direction of vocal training.

Vocalise

A vocalise is a vocal exercise (often one suitable for performance) without words, which is sung on one or more vowel sounds. The singing of vocalise is called vocalization.

Vocalise dates back to the mid-18th century. Jean-Antoine Bérard's 1755 compilation L’art du chant includes a selection of songs (sans words) by composers such as Lully and Rameau, chosen for their value as exercises in vocal technique. Accompanying the exercises were instructions on mastering the technical challenges they posed. By the 19th century vocalises were commonly composed specifically for pedagogical purposes rather than being adapted from existing songs.

A related tradition of vocalise sprang up in the 19th century, with wordless technical etudes set to piano accompaniment, following the fashion of the time of setting even the most mechanical of études to piano accompaniment with the thought that this would inspire the performer to execute the music more artistically.

One of the best-known examples of vocalise is Rachmaninoff's Vocalise op. 34 no. 14, written in 1912 for soprano Antonina Nezhdanova. It has been recorded numerous times and adapted for other voice types as well as orchestral and solo instrumental performance.

The first, slow movement of Heitor Villa-Lobos's Bachianas Brasileiras No. 5 (1938) features a soprano aria over a cello ensemble, which evolves into an extended vocalise that floats over a pizzicato accompaniment.

"Vocalese", whose name is a play on "vocalise", is a type of jazz singing in which new words are created and sung to existing instrumental improvisations.

In Indian classical music, the tradition of "aakaar" is used as a vocal exercise before singing, and also to a certain extent adds to the singing and the melody.

Here are few vocal exercises:

Melisma

Melisma is the musical art of creating a run of many notes from one syllable. In the United States, singers in the African-American church popularized the vocal practice, which dates to Gregorian chants and Indian ragas. When Sam Cooke, Ray Charles and Aretha Franklin began singing popular music, they brought melisma to more mainstream audiences. Whether you love it or hate it, Whitney Houston's hit "I Will Always Love You," with its elongated "iiieeee-eyes" and "ooooeeeooos," is a prime example.

American Idol contestants (and pop singers) sometimes abuse and overuse the technique in songs. At worst, they can fracture a word into a soulless slur of syllables that feels both alienating and groan-inducing. Plus you have no idea what word they're singing.

In music, melisma (commonly known as vocal runs or simply runs) is the technique of changing the note (pitch) of a syllable of text while it is being sung. Music sung in this style is referred to as melismatic, as opposed to syllabic, where each syllable of text is matched to a single note. Music of the ancient cultures used melismatic techniques to achieve a hypnotic trance in the listener, useful for early mystical initiation rites (Eleusinian Mysteries) and religious worship. This quality is still found in much Jewish, Hindu and Muslim religious music today. In western music, the term most commonly refers to Gregorian Chant, but may be used to describe music of any genre, including baroque singing and later gospel. Within Jewish liturgical tradition melisma is still commonly used in the chanting of Torah, readings from the Prophets, and in the body of the service itself. For an examination of the evolution of this tradition, see Idelsohn.
Melisma first appeared in written form in the system of Torah chanting developed by the Masoretes in the 7th or 8th century and then in some genres of Gregorian Chant, with the earliest written appearance around AD 900. where it was used in certain sections of the Mass. The gradual and the alleluia, in particular, were characteristically melismatic, for example, while the tract is not, and repetitive melodic patterns were deliberately avoided in the style. The Byzantine rite also used melismatic elements in their music, which developed roughly concurrently to the Gregorian chant.

The French Carol tune "Gloria" arranged by Edward Shippen Barnes in 1937, to which the hymn Angels We Have Heard On High is usually sung, contains one of the most melismatic sequences in popular Christian hymn music, on the "o" of the word "Gloria". Moreover, the choral tune "For Unto Us a Child is Born" from Handel's Messiah (Part I, No. 12) contains impressive examples of melisma.

Melisma is today commonly used in Middle Eastern popular music and Balkan pop-folk music. Melisma is also commonly featured in Western popular music, which has been heavily influenced by vocal techniques, by artists such as Joshua Wooten, Sam Cooke, Marvin Gaye, Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, Patti LaBelle, Crystal Lewis, Luther Vandross, Stevie Wonder, India Arie, Brian McKnight, Wanya Morris, Tonéx, Kim Burrell, Celine Dion, Christina Aguilera, Beverley Knight, Beyoncé Knowles, Fantasia Barrino, Lauryn Hill, Britney Spears, JoJo, Chris Brown and Aretha Franklin. Melisma is also used in rock music, with notable proponents including Shakira, Van Morrison, Joni Mitchell, Gene Clark of The Byrds, Alecia Moore also known as P!NK, Thom Yorke from Radiohead, and Robert Plant from Led Zeppelin. The use of melisma is common in Indian classical and popular music; this is often reflected in Western adaptations of Indian music, such as in The Beatles' "Rain."

Look at some of the complicated melismatic writing here:

Notice the melisma on the word "schwacher" (faltering) and "lallen" (stammer). Also see the chromatic, twisted passage to conclude the movement.

Vocal Registration

Vocal registration is the term used to denote various theories of how the human voice changes, both subjectively and objectively, as it moves through its pitch range.

Nearly all untrained voices have noticeable differences in timbre at different pitches. This is most easily seen in males, who are generally aware that they can speak in both their usual voice, which sounds "male," and in another, higher voice that is lighter, breathier, and sounds "female." Each of these timbres is referred to as a "register," hence "vocal registration." This is the clearest example, though it is also extremely common for singers who have recently begun studying voice formally to notice more subtle differences in their voice as they move through their vocal range.

Beyond these facts, it should be noted that registration is somewhat controversial, with disagreement on how many registers there are and indeed whether they exist at all. Further complication arises from the fact that registration is, broadly, unique to a particular singer and is to some extent subjective - a head note for a bass is a chest note for a soprano.
As mentioned above, registration is a controversial topic in vocal pedagogy. In this section, we outline the more popular theories of vocal registration.

Multiple Rigister Theory

The human voice is capable in most cases of being a complex instrument. Humans have vocal folds which can loosen or tighten or change their thickness and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced.

One important categorization that can be applied to the sounds singers make relates to the register or the "voice" that is used. Singers refer to these registers according to the part of the body in which the sound most generally resonates, and which have correspondingly different tonal qualities. There are widely differing opinions and theories about what a register is, how they are produced and how many there are. The distinct change or break between registers is called a passaggio or a ponticello.The following definitions refer to the different ranges of the voice.

Speaking Voice (Chest)

The chest voice is the register typically used in everyday speech. The first recorded mention of this register was around the 13th century, when it was distinguished from the throat and the head voice (pectoris, guttoris, capitis -- at this time it is likely head voice referred to the falsetto register, see falsetto article) by the writers Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome of Moravia.
The speaking voice is named as "the chest voice" in the Speech Level Singing method. It is so called because it can produce the sensation of the sound coming from the upper chest. This is because lower frequency sounds have longer wavelengths, and resonate mostly in the larger cavity of the chest. A person uses the chest voice when singing in the majority of his or her lower range.

It was discovered via stroboscope that during ordinary phonation, or speaking in a man the vocal folds contact with each other completely during each vibration closing the gap between them fully, if just for a small length of time. This closure cuts off the escaping air. When the air pressure in the trachea rises as a result of this closure, the folds are blown apart, while the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages remain in apposition. This creates an oval shaped gap between the folds and some air escapes, lowering the pressure inside the trachea. Rhythmic repetition of this movement a certain number of times a second creates a pitched note. This is how the chest voice is created.

The tonal qualities of the chest voice are usually described as being rich or full, but can also be belted or forced to make it sound powerful by shouting or screaming.
Use of overly strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can lead consequently to vocal deterioration.

Falsetto

In falsetto, the vocal folds, or cords when viewed with a stroboscope are seen to be blown apart and a permanent oval orifice is left in the middle between the edges of the two folds through which a certain volume of air escapes continuously as long as the register is engaged (the singer is singing using the voice). The arytenoid cartilages are held in firm apposition in this voice register also. The length or size of the oval orifice or separation between the folds can vary, but it is known to get bigger in size as the pressure of air pushed out is increased.

The folds are made up of elastic and fatty tissue. The folds are covered on the surface by laryngeal mucous membrane which is supported deeper down underneath it by the innermost fibres of the thyro-arytenoid muscle. In falsetto the extreme membranous edges, ie the edges furthest away from the middle of gap between the folds appear to be the only parts vibrating. The mass corresponding to the innermost part of the thyro-arytenoid muscle remains still and motionless.

Some singers feel a sense of muscular relief when they change from chest voice to falsetto.
In women, the falsetto voice refers to the whistle register.

Generally when singers describe their range they exclude the falsetto voice. A classical male singer who routinely sings using the falsetto is called a countertenor. Countertenors tend to count this range. If a singer makes frequent use of their falsetto it may be counted as part of their vocal range.

Head Register

The head register is used in singing to describe the resonance of singing something feeling to the singer as if it is occurring in their head. It's mentioned in the Speech Level Singing method used in some singing. All voices have a head register, whether bass or soprano. It is not associated with any particular musical pitch, but rather with the resonance of the voice in the head.

Often explanations for the physiological mechanisms behind the head voice alter from voice teacher to voice teacher. This is because, according to Clippinger: "In discussing the head voice it is the purpose to avoid as much as possible the mechanical construction of the instrument".

Other Theories

In addition to those detailed here, a variety of theories of register have been proffered. At the extreme, they may propose more than a dozen distinct vocal registers. Those listed above are the most commonly seen today. For an introduction to other theories, see Caldwell, 2001.